A carbon sink is a natural or artificial reservoir that accumulates and stores some carbonaceous chemicals for an indefinite period. The process by which carbon sinks removes carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) from the atmosphere is known as carbon sequestration. Public awareness of the importance of CO 2 absorption has grown since the passing of the Kyoto Protocol, which promotes its use as a form of carbon balancing. There are also different strategies used to improve this process.
Video Carbon sink
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Natural absorbers are:
- The absorption of carbon dioxide by the oceans through physical and biological processes
- Photosynthesis by terrestrial crops
While the creation of synthesized sinks has been discussed, there is no major artificial system that removes carbon from the atmosphere on a material scale.
Carbon sources include:
- The burning of fossil fuels (coal, natural gas and oil) by humans for energy and transportation
- Farmland (through animal respiration); there are proposed improvements in agricultural practices to reverse this.
Maps Carbon sink
Kyoto Protocol
As the growing vegetation takes up carbon dioxide, the Kyoto Protocol allows Annex I countries with large areas of growing forest to exclude the Removal Unit to recognize carbon sequestration. The additional units make it easier for them to reach their target emission levels. It is estimated that forests absorb between 10 and 20 tons of carbon dioxide per hectare each year, through the conversion of photosynthesis into starch, cellulose, lignin, and woody biomass. While this has been well documented for temperate forests and plantations, tropical forest fauna places some limitations to these global estimates.
Some countries seek to trade emission rights in carbon emissions markets, buying unused carbon emissions from other countries. If overall greenhouse gas emissions limits are enforced, market restriction and trading mechanisms are recognized to find cost-effective ways to reduce emissions. There is no carbon audit regime for all these markets globally, and nothing is stipulated in the Kyoto Protocol. National carbon emissions are self-declared.
In the Clean Development Mechanism, only afforestation and reforestation are eligible to produce certified emission reductions (CERs) within the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol (2008-2012). Forest conservation activities or activities that avoid deforestation, which will result in emission reductions through conservation of existing carbon stocks, are not eligible at this time. Also, agricultural carbon absorption is not yet possible.
Storage in terrestrial and marine environments
Land
Soil is a short to long carbon storage medium, and contains more carbon than all terrestrial vegetation and combined atmospheres. Litter plants and other biomass include charcoal that accumulates as organic matter in the soil, and is degraded by chemical weathering and biological degradation. More organic carbon polymers such as cellulose, hemi-cellulose, lignin, aliphatic compounds, waxes and terpenoids are collectively maintained as humus. Organic materials tend to accumulate in litter and soil from colder areas such as North American boreal forests and Russian Taiga. Leaf litter and humus are rapidly oxidized and poorly maintained in sub-tropical and tropical climatic conditions due to high temperatures and extensive washing by rainfall. Areas where shifting cultivation or cutting and agriculture are practiced are generally only fertile for 2-3 years before they are abandoned. These tropical forests are similar to coral reefs because they are very efficient at preserving and circulating the necessary nutrients, which explains their luxury in the nutrient desert. Much of the organic carbon stored in many agricultural areas around the world has been severely depleted due to intensive farming practices]].
Grasslands contribute to soil organic matter, which is stored primarily within their broad fibrous root mats. Because of some of the climatic conditions in this region (eg colder and semi-arid temperatures to dry conditions), this soil can accumulate significant amounts of organic matter. This may vary based on rainfall, duration of winter, and the frequency of fires triggered by lightning. While these fires release carbon dioxide, they improve the quality of the grassland as a whole, in turn increasing the amount of carbon stored in the humic material. They also deposit carbon directly into the soil in the form of charcoal that does not significantly lower the return of carbon dioxide.
Wildfires release carbon absorbed back into the atmosphere, as do deforestation due to the rapidly increasing oxidation of soil organic matter.
Organic matter in peat swamps has anaerobic decomposition that is slow below the surface. This process is slow enough that in many cases the swamp grows rapidly and fixes more carbon from the atmosphere than it is released. Over time, peat grows deeper. Peat swamps hold about a quarter of the carbon stored in soil and soil.
In some conditions, forests and peat swamps can be sources of CO 2 , such as when forests are flooded with the construction of hydroelectric dams. Unless forests and peatlands are harvested before floods, decaying vegetation is a source of CO 2 and methane is proportional to the amount of carbon released by fossil fuel power plants with equal power.
Regenerative farming
Current agricultural practices lead to loss of carbon from the soil. It has been suggested that improved farming practices can return land to carbon sinks. Presenting excessive pastoral practices around the world substantially reduces much of the grassland's performance as a carbon sink. The Rodale Institute says that regenerative farming, when practiced on the 3.6 billion hectares that can be processed on the planet, can absorb up to 40% of current CO 2 emissions. They claim that agricultural carbon sequestration has the potential to reduce global warming. When using biological-based regenerative practices, these dramatic benefits can be achieved without reducing the yields or benefits of farmers. Organically managed soils can convert carbon dioxide from greenhouse gases into food-generating assets.
In 2006, US carbon dioxide emissions, mostly from burning fossil fuels, were estimated at nearly 6.5 billion tonnes. If the 2,000 (lb/ac)/year absorption rate is achieved on all 434 million hectares (1,760,000 km 2 ) of agricultural land in the United States, nearly 1.6 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide will be sequestered per year , reducing nearly a quarter of the country's total fossil fuel emissions.
Oceans
Today, the oceans are the absorber of CO 2 , and represent the largest activated carbon sink on Earth, absorbing more than a quarter of the carbon dioxide that humans enter into the air. Solubility pumps are the main mechanism responsible for the uptake of CO2 by the oceans.
Biological pumps play a negligible role, because of the limitations to pump by the ambient light and nutrients needed by phytoplankton that ultimately drive it. Total inorganic carbon is not believed to limit primary production in the oceans, so its increased availability in the oceans does not directly affect production (different land situations, as it increases the atmospheric level of CO 2 essentially "fertilizer" to some threshold. "However, ocean acidification by invading anthropogenic CO 2 may affect biological pumps with negative impacts on calcifying organisms such as coccolithophores, foraminiferans and pteropods.Climate changes can also affect future biological pumps by heating and stratification of the surface oceans, thus reducing the limited supply of nutrients to the water surface.
A 2008 study found that CO 2 could potentially increase primary productivity, particularly in eel grasses in coastal and estuarine habitats.
In January 2009, the Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration announced a joint study to determine whether California's offshore oceans serve as carbon sinks or carbon sinks. The main instrumentation for this study was an independent CO 2 monitor placed on buoys in the oceans. They will measure the partial pressure of CO 2 in the oceans and the atmosphere just above the water level.
In February 2009, the Science Daily reported that the South Indian Ocean became less effective at absorbing carbon dioxide due to climate change in the region that included higher wind speeds.
In the longer span of time, the oceans could be sources and sinks - during ice ages CO 2 levels dropped to? 180 ppmv, and many of these are believed to be stored in the oceans. When the ice age ends, CO 2 is released from the ocean level and CO 2 during the previous interglacial has been around? 280 ppmv. This role as a sink for CO 2 is driven by two processes, a solubility pump and a biological pump. The first is primarily a function of the differential CO 2 solubility in seawater and thermohaline circulation, while the latter is the sum of a series of biological processes that transport carbon (in organic and inorganic form) from the surface of the euphotic zone to the interior of the ocean. A small fraction of the organic carbon transported by the biological pump to the seabed is buried under anoxic conditions beneath the sediment and ultimately forms fossil fuels such as oil and natural gas.
At the glacial end with the sea level rising rapidly, corals tend to grow more slowly due to rising ocean temperatures as seen in the Showtime series "Years of Living Dangerously". Calcium carbonate from which the coral skeleton is made is just over 60% carbon dioxide. If we postulate that coral reefs are eroded to the glacial sea level, coral reefs have grown 120m upward since the recent glacial end.
Increase natural sequestration
Forest
Forests can be carbon stores, and they are carbon dioxide absorber when they increase in density or area. In Canadian boreal forests as much as 80% of total carbon is stored on the ground as organic matter dies. A 40-year study of tropical forests of Africa, Asia, and South America by the University of Leeds, shows tropical forests absorb about 18% of all the carbon dioxide added by fossil fuels. The truly mature tropical forest, by definition, grows rapidly because each tree produces at least 10 new trees each year. Based on the FAO and UNEP studies, it has been estimated that Asian forests absorb about 5 tons of carbon dioxide per hectare each year. The global cooling effect of carbon sequestration by forests is partially offset by reforestation that can reduce the reflection of sunlight (albedo). Middle to high latitudes have significantly lower albedo during the winter than in flat soil, contributing to warming. Modeling comparing the effects of albedo differences between forests and grasslands suggests that expanding forestland in the temperate zone offers only temporary cooling benefits.
In the United States in 2004 (last year for EPA statistics available), forests confiscated 10.6% (637 MegaTonnes) of carbon dioxide released in the United States by burning fossil fuels (coal, oil and natural gas 5657 MegaTonnes). Urban trees seized 1.5% more (88 MegaTonnes). To further reduce US carbon dioxide emissions by 7%, as defined by the Kyoto Protocol, will require planting "an area of ​​Texas [8% of Brazil] every 30 years". The carbon offset program grows millions of fast growing trees per year to reforest tropical lands, with just $ 0.10 per tree; during their typical 40 years of age, a million of these trees will repair 1 to 2 MegaTonnes of carbon dioxide. In Canada, reducing logging would have a very small impact on carbon dioxide emissions due to the combination of harvesting and carbon storage in wood products produced in conjunction with the re-growth of harvested forests. In addition, the amount of carbon released from the harvest is very small compared to the amount of carbon lost each year due to forest fires and other natural disturbances.
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change concluded that "a sustainable forest management strategy aimed at maintaining or enhancing forest carbon stocks, while producing wood fiber yields or annual sustainable energy from forests, will result in the greatest sustainable mitigation benefits." Sustainable management practices make forests grow at a higher rate over a longer period of time, thus providing net absorption benefits than unmanaged forests.
Forest life expectations vary across the world, affected by tree species, site conditions and patterns of natural disturbance. In some forests, carbon can be stored for centuries, while in other forests carbon is released by frequently replacing the flames. Forests that are harvested before they stand in place allow for carbon storage in manufactured wood products such as wood. However, only part of the carbon taken from logged-over forests ends up as durable goods and buildings. The rest end up as a by-product of sawmills such as pulp, paper and pallets, which often end up with incineration (resulting in the release of carbon into the atmosphere) at the end of their life cycle. For example, of the 1,692 MegaTonnes of carbon taken from forests in Oregon and Washington (USA) from 1900 to 1992, only 23% were in long-term storage in forest products.
Ocean
One way to increase ocean carbon sequestration efficiency is to add micrometeric iron particles in the form of either hematite (iron oxide) or melanterit (iron sulfate) to certain areas of the ocean. It has the effect of stimulating plankton growth. Iron is an essential nutrient for phytoplankton, usually available through upwelling along continental shelves, incoming streams and rivers, as well as the deposition of atmospheric suspended dust. The natural source of oceanic iron has declined in recent decades, contributing to the overall decline in marine productivity (NASA, 2003). But in the presence of iron nutrition, rapidly growing, or 'blooming' plankton populations, broadening the biomass productivity base across the region and eliminating significant amounts of CO from sub-photosynthesis. A test in 2002 in the Southern Ocean around Antarctica shows that between 10,000 and 100,000 carbon atoms are submerged for every iron atom added to water. More recent work in Germany (2005) shows that any ocean biomass carbon, whether exported to depth or recycled in the euphotic zone, represents long-term carbon sequestering. This means that the application of iron nutrients in certain parts of the ocean, at the right scale, can have a combined effect of restoring marine productivity while at the same time reducing the impact of human-caused carbon dioxide emissions into the atmosphere.
Because the effects of increased periodic small-scale phytoplankton on marine ecosystems are unclear, more research will help. Phytoplankton have a complex effect on the formation of clouds through the release of substances such as dimethyl sulfide (DMS) converted into atmospheric aerosol sulfate, providing a core of cloud condensation, or CCN. But the effect of small-scale plankton increases on the overall production of DMS is unknown.
Other nutrients such as nitrates, phosphates, and silica and iron can cause conception of the ocean. There is some speculation that using a fertilization pulse (about 20 days long) may be more effective to get carbon to the seabed than continuous fertilization.
There has been some controversy about the seawing of oceans with iron, however, due to the increased potential for the growth of toxic phytoplankton (eg "red tide"), decreased water quality due to overgrowth, and anoxia increase in areas adverse to other marine life such as zooplankton, fish, etc.
Land
Since the 1850s, most of the world's pastures have been cultivated and converted into agricultural land, allowing rapid oxidation of large quantities of soil organic carbon. However, in the United States in 2004 (the latest year for which EPA statistics are available), agricultural land including pasture land seized as much as 0.8% (46 diagrams) of carbon as released in the United States by burning fossil fuels (5988 diagrams). The annual number of sequestration has increased gradually since 1998.
Methods that significantly increase carbon uptake in soils include landless farming, mulch residue, cover crops, and crop rotation, all of which are more widely used in organic farming than conventional farming. Since only 5% of US farmland currently uses no-till and residue mulch, there is great potential for carbon sequestration. Converting to grasslands, especially with good pastoral management, can sequester more carbon in the soil.
Terra preta, anthropogenic soil, high carbon, are also being investigated as sequestration mechanisms. With pyrolysing biomass, about half its carbon can be reduced to charcoal, which can survive in the soil for centuries, and make useful soil changes, especially in tropical soil ( biochar or agrichar >).
Savanna
Controlled burns in the savanna of northern Australia can produce an overall carbon sink. One example is the West Arnhem Fire Management Agreement, beginning to bring "strategic fire management at 28,000 km ² West Arnhem Land". Deliberately initiating controlled burning at the start of the dry season produces a burning and non-burning state mosaic that reduces the combustion area compared to the firmer late-season fires. At the beginning of the dry season, the humidity is higher, the temperature is colder, and the wind is brighter than in the dry season; fire tends to come out overnight. Early supervised burns also result in a smaller proportion of burned grass and tree biomass. The reduction of 256,000 tons CO 2 emissions was carried out in 2007.
Artificial binding
For carbon to be artificially alienated (ie not using natural processes of the carbon cycle) it must first be captured, or it must be delayed significantly or prevented from being released back into the atmosphere (by combustion). , decay, etc.) of the carbon-rich material present, by being incorporated into perpetual use (as in construction). After that it can be kept passively or still used productively over time in various ways.
For example, after harvest, wood (as a carbon-rich material) can be immediately burned or otherwise function as fuel, returns carbon to the atmosphere, or can be incorporated into other durable construction or product ranges, thus absorbing carbon for years or even centuries.
Indeed, a very carefully designed and durable, energy-saving and energy-capturing building has the potential to seize (in carbon-rich construction materials), as much or more carbon than was released by acquisition and incorporation of all its ingredients and from that to be released by "functions-import-energy" buildings during the (potentially multi-centuries) structure of existence. Such structures can be called "carbon neutral" or even "negative carbon". Building and operation construction (electricity use, heating, etc.) is estimated to contribute almost half of the annual addition of man-made carbon to the atmosphere.
Natural gas purification installations often have to remove carbon dioxide, either to avoid clogged gas tankers or to prevent the concentration of carbon dioxide beyond the maximum 3% allowed on natural gas distribution networks.
Beyond this, one of the most preliminary possible applications of carbon capture is the capture of carbon dioxide from exhaust gases in power plants (in the case of coal, this coal pollution mitigation is sometimes known as "clean coal"). A typical new 1000 MW power plant generates about 6 million tons of carbon dioxide each year. Adding carbon capture to existing crops can significantly increase energy production costs; By setting aside costs, the 1,000 MW coal mill will require storage of approximately 50 million barrels (7,900,000 m 3 ) of carbon dioxide per year. However, scrubbing is relatively affordable when added to a new plant based on coal gasification technology, where it is estimated to raise energy costs for households in the United States using only a coal-fired power source of 10 cents per kWa, h to 12 cents.
Carbon fetch
Currently, carbon dioxide capture is carried out on a large scale by absorption of carbon dioxide into various amine-based solvents. Other techniques are currently under investigation, such as swing pressure adsorption, temperature swing adsorption, gas separation membranes, cryogenics and chimney catching.
In coal-fired power plants, the main alternative to retrofit an amine-based damper to existing power plants are two new technologies: combustion of coal-gas combustion and oxy-fuel combustion. The first gasification produces "syngas" primarily of hydrogen and carbon monoxide, which is burned, with carbon dioxide filtered from the flue gas. Oxy-fuel combustion burns coal in oxygen instead of air, producing only carbon dioxide and water vapor, which are relatively easy to separate. Some combustion products must be returned to the combustion chamber, either before or after separation, otherwise the temperature will be too high for the turbine.
Another long-term option is the direct removal of carbon from the air using hydroxides. Air will literally be removed from its CO 2 content. This idea offers an alternative to non-carbon fuels for the transport sector.
Examples of carbon sequestration in coal plants include converting carbon from smokestacks to baking soda, and algae-based carbon capture, avoiding storage by converting algae into fuel or feed.
Ocean
Another proposed form of carbon sequestration at sea is direct injection. In this method, carbon dioxide is pumped directly into the water at depth, and is expected to form a "lake" of CO 2 liquid at the bottom. Experiments conducted in medium to deep water (350-3600 m) showed that the CO 2 liquid reacted to form a solid, solid hydrogenated CO 2 subphase, which gradually dissolved in the surrounding waters..
This method also has dangerous environmental consequences. Carbon dioxide reacts with water to form carbonic acid, H 2 CO 3 ; However, most (as much as 99%) remain as soluble molecule molecules 2 . The equilibrium will no doubt be very different under the high-pressure conditions in the deep ocean. In addition, if the methanogenic bacteria in the ocean that reduce carbon dioxide must face carbon dioxide, methane gas levels may increase, leading to even worse greenhouse gas formation. The environmental effects resulting in the benthic life forms of the bathypelagic, abyssopelagic and hadopelagic zones are unknown. Although life seems rather rare in deep ocean basins, the energy and chemical effects in these deep basins can have far-reaching implications. More work is needed here to determine the extent of potential problems.
Carbon storage within or under the oceans may not be compatible with the Convention on the Prevention of Sea Pollution with Waste Disposal and Other Materials.
An additional method of long-term ocean absorption is to collect crop residues such as corn stalks or excess straw into large-weight biomass straw bales and store them in alluvial fan areas of deep ocean basins. Dropping this residue in an alluvial fan will cause the residue to quickly burrow in the mud on the seabed, absorbing the biomass for a very long span of time. Alluvial fans exist in all the oceans and seas of the world where river deltas fall from the edge of continental plates like the alluvial Mississippi fan in the Gulf of Mexico and the all-Nile fan in the Mediterranean Sea. Weakness, however, will be an increase in the growth of aerobic bacteria due to the introduction of biomass, leading to more competition for oxygen sources in the deep ocean, similar to the minimum oxygen zone.
Geological seizures
The geo-sequestration or geological storage method involves injecting carbon dioxide directly into underground geological formations. The decline of oil fields, salt aquifers, and non-mined coal seams has been suggested as storage. Old caves and old mines that are used to store natural gas are not considered, due to lack of storage security.
CO 2 has been injected into oil fields declining for over 40 years, to improve oil recovery. This option is interesting because storage costs are offset by the sale of additional oil recoverable. Typically, an additional 10-15% recovery from original oil in place is possible. Further benefits are the existing infrastructure and geophysical and geological information about available oil fields from oil exploration. Another benefit of injecting CO 2 into the Oil field is that CO 2 is soluble in oil. Dissolving CO 2 in the oil decreases the viscosity of the oil and reduces the interface voltage which increases the oil mobility. All oil fields have a geological barrier that prevents oil migration upward. Since most of the oil and gas have been in existence for millions to tens of millions of years, depleted oil and gas reserves can contain carbon dioxide for thousands of years. Possible problems identified are the many 'leaking' opportunities provided by old oil wells, the need for high injection and acidification pressures that could damage the geological barrier. Another disadvantage of the old oil field is its limited geographic distribution and depth, requiring high injection pressure for absorption. Below a depth of about 1000 m, carbon dioxide is injected as a supercritical fluid, a material with a fluid density, but viscosity and gas diffusivity. An inexhaustible coal layer can be used to store CO 2 , because CO 2 absorbs to the coal surface, ensuring long-term safe storage. In the process it releases previously previously adsorbed methane onto the surface of the coal and which can be recovered. Again methane sales can be used to offset the storage costs of CO 2 . The liberation or burning of methane will, of course, at least partially offset the results of sequestration obtained - except when gas is allowed to escape to the atmosphere in significant quantities: methane has a higher global warming potential than CO 2 .
The saline aquifers contain highly mineralized saltwater and so far considered to be of no benefit to humans except in some cases where they have been used for the storage of chemical wastes. Their advantages include large potential storage volumes and relatively common events reducing the distance at which CO 2 must be transported. The main disadvantage of saline aquifers is that relatively little is known about them compared to oil fields. Another disadvantage of the salt aquifer is that of increased water salinity, less CO 2 can be dissolved into aqueous solution. To keep storage costs acceptable, geophysical exploration may be limited, resulting in greater uncertainty about a given aquifer structure. Unlike storage in oil fields or coal beds, no byproducts will offset storage costs. Leaking CO 2 back into the atmosphere may be a problem in saline-aquifer storage. However, current research suggests that some mechanisms trap crippling underground CO 2 , reducing the risk of leakage.
A major research project that examines geological foreclosures of carbon dioxide is currently being conducted in an oil field in Weyburn in southeast Saskatchewan. In the North Sea, the Norwegian Equinor natural gas platform Sleipner cuts carbon dioxide from natural gas with amine solvents and removes this carbon dioxide by geological uptake. Sleipner reduces carbon dioxide emissions by about one million tonnes per year. The cost of geological sequestration is relatively small compared to overall operational costs. In April 2005, BP was considering trials of large-scale sequestration of carbon dioxide stripped of emissions from power plants in the Miller field because its reserves were depleted.
In October 2007, the Economic Geology Bureau at the University of Texas at Austin received a $ 38 million 10-year contract subcontract to undertake the first intensive, intensively monitored long-term project in the United States studying the feasibility of injection of substantially CO 2 for underground storage. The project is a research program of the Southeast Regional Carbon Absorption Partnership (SECARB), funded by the US Department of Energy's National Energy Technology Laboratory (DOE). The SECARB partnership will demonstrate the level of injection and storage capacity of CO 2 in the Tuscaloosa-Woodbine geological system that stretches from Texas to Florida. Beginning in fall 2007, the project will inject CO 2 at a rate of one million tonnes per year, up to 1.5 years, into salt water up to 10,000 feet (3,000 m) below ground near Cranfield about 15 miles (24 km) east of Natchez, Mississippi. The experimental equipment will measure the subsurface capability to receive and maintain CO 2 .
Mineral absorption
Mineral absorption aims to trap carbon in the form of solid carbonate salts. This process occurs slowly in nature and is responsible for precipitation and accumulation of limestone over geological time. Carbonic acids in ground water slowly react with complex silicates to dissolve calcium, magnesium, alkali and silica and leave clay mineral residues. Dissolved calcium and magnesium react with bicarbonate to precipitate calcium and magnesium carbonate, a process used by organisms to make shells. When the organism dies, its shell is deposited as sediment and eventually turns into limestone. Rocks have accumulated over billions of years of geological time and contain a lot of Earth's carbon. Ongoing research aims to speed up similar reactions involving alkali carbonates.
Some serpentine sediments are being investigated as a potentially large storage reservoir of CO 2 as found in NSW, Australia, where the first mineralized mineral pilot project is underway. Useful reuse of magnesium carbonate from this process can provide raw materials for new products developed for the built environment and agriculture without restoring carbon to the atmosphere and acting as a carbon sink.
One of the proposed reactions is that of olivine-rich rocky clumps, or the equivalent of serpentinite hydrate with carbon dioxide to form magnesium carbonate minerals, plus silica and iron oxide (magnetite).
Serpentinite uptake is preferred because of the non-toxic and stable nature of magnesium carbonate. The ideal reaction involves the magnesium endmember component of olivine (reaction 1) or serpentine (reaction 2), the latter derived from the prior olivine by hydration and silicification (reaction 3). The presence of iron in olivine or serpentine reduces absorption efficiency, since the components of this mineral iron break down into iron oxide and silica (reaction 4).
Serpentinite Reactions
Reaksi 1
Mg-olivin karbon dioksida -> magnesit silika air
- Mg 2 SiO 4 2CO 2 -> 2MgCO 3 SiO 2 H 2 O
Reaksi 2
Serpentine karbon dioksida -> magnesit silika air
- Mg 3 [Si 2 O 5 (OH) 4 ] 3CO 2 -> 3MgCO 3 2SiO 2 2H 2 O
Reaksi 3
Mg-olivin air silika -> serpentine
- 3Mg 2 SiO 4 2SiO 2 4H 2 O -> 2Mg 3 [Si 2 O 5 (OH) 4 ]
Reaksi 4
Fe-olivin air -> magnetit silika hidrogen
- 3Fe 2 SiO 4 2H 2 O -> 2Fe 3 O 4 3SiO 2 2H 2
kerangka kerja Zeolitic imidazolate
Zeolitic imidazolate frameworks are carbon-carbon organic carbon dioxide frameworks that can be used to keep carbon dioxide emissions from the atmosphere.
Performance trends in sink
One study in 2009 found that the fraction of fossil fuel emissions absorbed by the oceans may have decreased by 10% since 2000, suggesting ocean absorption may be sublinear. However, another study by Wolfgang Knorr indicates that the fraction of CO 2 absorbed by carbon has not changed since 1850.
See also
- Biochar
- Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage
- Carbon retrieval and storage
- Carbon cycle
- Carbon sequestration in terrestrial ecosystems
- The Fluxnet-Canada Research Network, a research initiative on forest carbon disruption after deforestation
References
External links
- Gulf Coast Carbon Center
- National Energy Technology Laboratory (NETL) Carbon Sequestration
- Carbon Capture and Sequestration Technologies Program at MIT
- Carbon Mitigation Initiative
- US North American Carbon Program
- Scottish Carbon Storage Research Center
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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